Australian media occupies a unique position in responding to the real-life impacts of climate change. With audiences for whom climate change has already impacted daily life, it can be argued that the media has the responsibility to tell stories that support radical paradigm shifts which enable mitigation of these impacts in ways of truth. Understanding Australia's place in the landscape of climate change is a complex picture – both at once vulnerable to the most severe effects and one of the most well-equipped to take proactive action on climate, Australia can be understood as a valuable part of the global mosaic. While other countries steam ahead with renewable energy and nuclear options, Australia's pace of change in this area has been traditionally slow, fuelled by vast non-renewable reserves. It is these reserves that have contributed to an increase in greenhouse gasses, creating a warmer blanket of air around the Earth. This warmer blanket causes greater movement of air, contributing to storms and other weather events. While the Earth itself has balancing mechanisms in place to cope with climate changes, these do not take into account the preservation of crops - or coastal cities. If climate change impacts all of us, then we all have our own responsibilities in telling the right stories, the right way; for a good story can change the world.
Australian media operates in a landscape of governance and government that allow for strong messages to be propagated throughout the population relatively quickly – with only a few major publishers of news, consistent front page news can be a powerful tool to cause widespread change in attitude, simply through the way the story is told. Positive attention results in positive outcomes, while negative attention results in discouragement of those practices, and this can be used to enhance climate-friendly messages. With this in mind, the duty of a responsible media industry that wishes to influence climate change in a positive direction would be to encourage positive initiatives through showcasing success, while discouraging unethical behaviour that sabotages the climate landscape. Showcasing success and Australian innovation opens the door to greater investment as an added benefit, as well as maintaining hope that this is not only a problem that can be managed, but that the solutions already exist – they merely need to be implemented on larger scales and within the appropriate timeframes. Of course, implementation cannot occur unless the solutions are known about, which is one of the most important facets of the media's power to influence climate change in positive ways. The need for truth about solutions and innovation must also be paired with truth about the increase in disaster frequency and severity. Using the predictions and estimates from Australian researchers alongside news reports to understand the increase in disaster-level weather events may help encourage action from any who remain skeptical about the potential impact of climate-change mediated weather-events.
Australians have a great level of access to high-quality recording, enabling breaking news sourced from genuine reactions from the audiences to be used effectively and impactfully to create understanding in high definition. With a high level of literacy and enthusiasm for social justice, the Australian population is a powerful force for potential good – as the widespread enthusiasm for recycling has shown. Just as in this example, any climate-change initiative can be introduced using the same principles, at least on an individual level. Recycling narratives are well accepted within the community and make good frameworks for introducing new initiatives into the community – making recycling easy enough for both individuals and families, so that the sorting and processing is not significantly different from the rest of what needs to be disposed of means that good habits of recycling are easy, and thus is more likely to be effectively adopted. The adoption of the next stage of reducing carbon cycling in plastics – that is, the use of biodegradable plastics can be similarly easy. In this way the media's role in familiarising people to new technologies and changes in processes can leverage the concept of ease to encourage greater adoption. This can also be done as it was with recycling, through the use of modelling behaviour in fictional worlds created by Australian media. Popular shows such as Neighbours or Home and Away are able to bring about effective behavioural change because of this behaviour modelling. Recycling is easy on TV, therefore it is seen as easier in the home – and this technique can be used for any new technology or process which focuses on in-the home solutions.
For the development of new technologies to combat the multi-pronged problem that is climate change, Australia also houses a number of world-leading universities in renewable research fields and engineering for a sustainable future. In addition, a well-maintained ecosystem of universities exists embedded within their communities, both in cities and regionally, many of whom have been preparing their capacities for research and development in these areas for decades. It is no accident that Australia's solar technology is world-leading, nor is it coincidence that some of the ground-breaking research on plant growth promotion happens at Australian universities. Scientists of the earth, water, air and energy all come to Australia from overseas, often at considerable cost to themselves, to study and learn at Australian universities. Whether they are then part of the percentage that stay in Australia to assist in building and maintaining our future capacity, or whether they are part of the percentage that leave for home or elsewhere, this capacity building that has been occurring within the universities is one of the most powerful tools available to the global arena of those invested in reducing the impacts of climate change, enabling the whole world to maintain the conditions of life for humanity and the biodiversity present on Earth. The media's role in this capacity building is one of fostering unity – where narratives support the idea that if all pull in the same direction, then all have access to a habitable planet; one where catastrophic disaster is averted.
With unity between these forces for potential good, the issue of excess greenhouse gasses could be an easier problem to solve in Australia than in many other locations around the world. Australia has access to rich industries that have been traditional polluters and whose products have been used to produce many of the inputs into the climate change equation. Encouraging investment into the solutions for climate change can be framed in terms of a sense of duty to the country, people and world. This is one way in which the media landscape could foster greater ties between those who have the financial resources to solve the problem, and those who have the solutions. These solutions, many of which are created in Australia, for the benefit of the Australian people and Australian investment are then not restricted to domestic influence; Australian news is considered to be reliable and is part of the news landscape of both neighbours and allies to Australia, allowing for the spread of Australian-made solutions across the Pacific.
Australian media narratives, if chosen correctly have the power to influence attitudes in countries near and far, with particularly powerful influences in leveraging the idea of unity. We are One is not simply a catchphrase – it sums up the Australian attitude towards duty, responsibility and prosperity for all. It encompasses the idea of the fair go, mateship and equality, and these in turn influence Australia's positive reputation around the world. What has been missing, and causes discouragement in the population in terms of successfully addressing climate change is the unity between individuals and the systemic forces that influence their lives. For example, if the narratives around recycling encourage people to think it is easy, worthwhile and achievable, most will rise to the expectation almost immediately, especially if it is also good for the planet. What can sabotage that narrative is stories of bad actors in the recycling arena not following through on their promises to sort, redistribute and reclaim (and successfully remove that recycling from the waste stream), as it can result in a “why bother” attitude if the system does not work – or is perceived to not work.
In Wiradyuri culture, a common idea that reoccurs in discussions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous voices is that of “Yindyamarra”. This is the responsibility we all have to respect each other, our country and lands with the understanding that our actions reverberate throughout the generations – both those that have come before, and those that will come after. It is an understanding that encourages the people who tell stories to do so with the weight of responsibility shaping the way in which those stories are told, and the messages that come forth from a good story. Australian audiences are already exposed to the stories of destruction and fear around the potential consequences of climate change, and live the impacts that have already occurred. A good story here could build on this beginning to promote the types of paradigm change that will be needed to successfully halt and reverse the negative impacts of climate change. Every good story requires a beginning, a middle and and end. The beginning is already written, the end where the solutions are implemented successfully is achievable, and what remains is to simply write the middle. While in introducing the topic, the term “radical” was used to describe this paradigm change, it is likely that the way forward is to use what has already worked to develop narratives that attack the problem in all of the ways, all of the time, in the same way that recycling became a norm.
Australia's place in the global mosaic is as both a loud and quiet achiever – at once a place of peacefulness and serene beauty, the land has potential for capricious violence that often works at odds to those that live upon it. In many ways, the technological innovations propagated from Australian universities are well-spoken about globally, and the market for Australian innovation can be supported effectively by the media landscape. To solve climate change, attacking the problem in all of the ways, all of the time can be expanded from individual action, to corporate action, to governmental action by recognising that the planet has a carbon budget. In many ways, the solutions for balancing this budget already exist – whether this is switching to renewable sources, leveraging new technologies for power storage and production, promoting plant growth and reforestation attempts, recycling and circularising industry inputs and outputs – this requires serious and good faith effort from all levels of stakeholders in the planet's health. Placing greater focus on successful initiatives drives more interest in implementing successful solutions, while a focus on harmful associations requires truth-telling around the reasons for these continued actions. The media has the ability to inspire Australians – and inspiration is a powerful force for potential good.
Australia is also geographically one of the most well-equipped countries to tackle climate change on the planet's behalf. With vast tracts of land, and a dedication to Indigenous voices in our farming and land management sectors, initiatives such as re-greening desertified areas and reforesting damaged land can be carried out while reinforcing all Australian's connection to Country and land. The answer to climate change may not entirely be encompassed by planting trees, but their growth is controlled by the levels of carbon in the atmosphere available – and it is one of the areas in which people power can be leveraged quite successfully, and has been in the past. It is important to note that any form of carbon sinking project – whether this be technological via development and production of carbon scrubbers or natural via propagation and planting of trees and fast-growing crops – will have a net effect on the atmosphere as a whole. That is, if Australia can successfully carbon sink on a large enough scale, it will be able to do so to benefit the entire world – as it did once before, leading to our large natural reserves of coal and oil.
From an industrial standpoint, Australia already implements a wide range of initiatives that help reduce impacts on climate and the landscape. Whether this is in the form of closed-loop water systems or in the form of emissions reductions at the source, a greater focus on these successful initiatives can help promote a “clean is cool” attitude, similar to the narratives used to help prevent the appearance of acid rain during the last decades of the 20th Century. Australia also has a strong capacity for biotechnology, and a range of underestimated players who can be brought onto the field for assistance from both the microbial worlds and flora. In the global mosaic, Australia is a powerful leader in the push towards zero-sum carbon budgeting. Given the potential impacts on our landscape and food chain, it might be argued that part of the media's duty, working alongside industries is to help promote this leadership as fact in both the domestic and international spheres. If clean is cool, Australian's can be some of the coolest people around – which fits the image many other countries already have of the Australian people.
Australian natural resources are a blessing for not only Australia but also the world, with industrialisation in many countries being driven by the export of coal and oil, however alarm bells were rung almost half a century ago around the non-renewable nature of these resources, and the current discussions on climate change focus on the output of industries in their emissions. It is clear that this blessing is not infinite – and that at some point, a more circular resource must be used. As one of the globe's major exporters of coal and oil, Australia has a large stake at the table in discussions around energy and power, but given the current concerns, the industries must prepare to pivot, which many already have started to do. It is here that the Australian media have the ability to work with industry to share best practice, both in the domestic market and overseas, to enable faster pivoting to more innovative and clean technologies.
It is feared that Australia's pivot to renewable energy production has been slower than many other countries, with some European countries now entirely lit by either renewable or nuclear options. Complacency around inputs to the energy equation is becoming less and less of an option, as climate scientists continue to warn about increasing temperatures. The vast reserves of non-renewable resources present in Australia are not infinite, and each kilogram taken from the ground becomes carbon and byproducts in some other form – most commonly in the air, which is where the issue of greenhouse gasses originates. This blanket over the Earth is necessary for life to continue, but just as someone covering themselves with too many blankets may overheat, so may the Earth. The resulting storms and more rare weather phenomena are a byproduct of the warmer air and seas, as the Earth attempts to maintain the stable set points at which there is balance.
Thinking of these balancing mechanisms within the context of life on Earth, an attitude can be developed that encompasses the systems of the Earth as part of a larger living organism, each with its own function in maintaining the conditions of life. The media can help to foster this return to a more holistic perspective by involving Indigenous voices within popular stories, and by using imagery to create implicit links between how it is and how it might be. These perspectives are vital in healing our society and country and forming the bonds between humanity that are needed to develop the trust that leads to long-term hope. The message is worthwhile that not only is Earth and humanity worth saving, but that they are worth the effort and investment required, in the time needed, for the solutions already exist.
As the Fourth Estate, media has a duty to ensure that they competently form part of the checks and balances on industry, society and government. This means having the right people at the right tables at the right time, and ensuring that the stories that are told contribute effectively to the narratives needed for either change or stability. Just as it is the responsibility of an individual to readjust their course should they discover that their current actions may result in risk of harm to others, the government and industry, involving so many more people have a responsibility to make good decisions not only for those they are caretaking for, but for future generations as well. Australian media, functioning as an effective fourth estate, can enable necessary change by bringing forth the voices of those who may be underrepresented at decision-making tables and by encouraging those in power to see and represent their authority through their duty to the country and it's people. After all, the balancing mechanisms of the Earth are not subject to zoning laws or cropping cycles, and doing what is possible to maintain these balancing mechanisms within the carbon budget of the atmosphere is of long-term benefit to not only the people's comfort, but also their food supply and other supply chains.
In order to make good decisions, decision makers require: an understanding of the scope of the issue, which the general consensus of scientists agree is of great concern within our lifetimes; frameworks upon which to add solutions to foster understanding, such as the idea of a carbon budget; understanding of what solutions are available and which ones will have the most impact; and a good understanding of the context in which these solutions are effective. An example of an effective solution currently in use is people powered and known as “Earth smiles”. A semicircle of earth is removed, creating a depression in the landscape where water can collect, providing a good environment for re-greening processes in areas with low rainfall. This solution is effective in loam soil, and soils that are sandy but are not subject to strong winds, but less effective in the dunes of a desert, as the shape is hard to retain in those conditions. Re-greening allows for natural carbon-sinking, turning carbon in the atmosphere into plants and trees, but is not the only natural solution available for carbon-sinking. Bioreactors of photosynthetic algae and bacteria have promise, as well as the use of water-dwelling fast growing plants such as Azolla, whose ability to detoxify the water they grow in provides great promise for some of Austraia's other major industries.
The majority of this essay has focused on traditional media formats, such as news and sitcom entertainment. Whether using primarily visual or audio formats, these styles of techniques to change narratives are reasonably consistent and well documented, enabling and empowering all levels of stakeholders to implement effective balancing of the carbon budget. The power of digital media and social media cannot be ignored within this broader picture. With many younger people engaging with news through fast-paced social outlets, a generational divide has occurred in the expectations of both the type of news available and how people interact with the media more generally. For example, the comments section on a news article might once have been an analogue to a letter to the editor, but the style, tone and format has changed sufficiently that these are now two separate styles of communication, with different expectations about who will read and reply. This type of cross-over between traditional and social media formats provides an effective nexus point to engage with new and diverse audiences, both in Australia and beyond.
Bringing new voices into the conversation is vital when considering climate change in terms of a carbon budget, as managing environmental concerns is an ongoing project with the same types of long-term considerations that are found within a standard economic budget. The media has an important role to play in training these new voices to become powerful advocates and educated caretakers, by weaving these narratives into the life-cycle of the viewer's progression through media formats. This can be done by encouraging an appreciation of natural wonder, of including and showcasing solutions on an individual basis and as part of the wider system, of having inspiration to unity and appreciation of diversity, and in many ways, much of Australia's media already does this well. These examples can be used to encourage other countries that may be struggling with climate change narratives, and thus have an even greater impact. A good story can change the world, and the stories that are chosen to be maintained and given voice to can be read as a much larger story – the story of “us”.
To answer the story of “us”: the question of how Australians wish to be seen on the world stage, it takes all of the above considerations. A fair go for people looks like a fair go for the environment, and so readjusting the narrative away from polarisation and into a more sustainable carbon budget framework encourages the issue to be seen as bipartisan – for it affects us all, or will if we do not stop the debt accruing. We are borrowing against the health of the planet we live on, and if we do not balance the debt soon, it will be balanced for us on a global scale. Luckily, many solutions can have global impact without leaving the country, and it is more than possible to create viable business solutions from the byproducts of carbon sinking, there simply needs to be hope that change is possible and achievable. This is the true power of the media in this mosaic of responsibilities – to provide hope by showcasing the successes that have already started making an impact, by acting as an effective Fourth Estate to ensure that change is driven in by those working in good faith for the good of all, and by helping to teach our children and young people that change is not only possible, it is something worth being inspired by. For if climate change impacts all of us, then we all have our own responsibilities in telling the right stories, the right way. A good story can change the world.
The roles and responsibilities of Australian media are shaped by the landscape the major players operate in, where through these shaping forces of governance and governement, strong messages can be propagated quickly. The media's role as an informant of the people is supported by strong domestic research, giving plenty of material to work with to create these strong messages, with world-leading universities in renewable research fields and engineering for a sustainable future. Working together, these universities, along with industry and the media can mediate and bring forth effective solutions, that in many ways already have the frameworks and infrastructure to work in Australia. Australian media narratives have the power to influence attitudes of this unity in countries near and far since for Australians, “We are One” is not simply a catchphrase. In Wiradyuri culture, a common idea that reoccurs in discussions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous voices is that of “Yindyamarra” - respect for self, for nature and for country, knowing that actions reverberate across the generations. Australia is at once a place of peacefulness and serene beauty with a capacity for capricious violence that the media has a responsibility to represent with accuracy and truth, for our geography is more than a promise or a threat – it is a blessing. Australians live on a land that has the resources, space and diversity to be able to tackle climate change on the planet's behalf, since any carbon capture or sinking program influences the whole atmosphere, lowering the concentration of greenhouse gasses across the globe. Tackling climate change requires a different way of thinking across individual actions, industry and government, and in Australia, many of these ways of thinking already exist – the circularity of resource management can be found in the home recycling schemes and in the industrial closed-loop water systems, all of which reduce impacts of resource use on the climate and the landscape. These ways of circular thinking mirror the balancing mechanisms of nature that function as though life is part of a larger living organism, with each niche maintaining its own function in the circle of life. As the Fourth Estate, media has a duty to ensure that they competently form part of the checks and balances on industry, society and government. In order to make good decisions, decision makers require: an understanding of the scope of the issue, which the general consensus of scientists agree is of great concern within our lifetimes; frameworks upon which to add solutions to foster understanding, such as the idea of a carbon budget; understanding of what solutions are available and which ones will have the most impact; and a good understanding of the context in which these solutions are effective. Techniques to change narratives are consistent and well documented, enabling and empowering all levels of stakeholders to implement effective balancing of the carbon budget, and re-framing the narrative away from polarisation. Bringing new voices into the conversation is also a vital role of the media, since managing environmental concerns is an ongoing project with the same types of long-term considerations that are found within an economic budget. To answer the story of “us” in a world impacted by climate change; which is the question of how Australians wish to be seen on the world stage, it takes all of the above considerations, with the media as playing the roles as both the medium and the mouthpiece.
I had a discussion with a friend today about Calhoun's experiment: Universe 25. The problems I see with the universe 25 study really relate to exactly how rats work. We know now that these rats would have been like any animal in captivity: if their needs are not taken care of then they will become maladaptive in their behaviour.
Calhoun's work was used to create comic book storylines and villains, as well as inspiring Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH (later reimagined as The Rats of NIMH), with the core disseminated message: crowding causes madness. A conclusion hard to disagree with if you google the visual of the universe. Woven throughout were religious references - taken up by the media and used to justify the inevitability of "the behavioural sink".
I don't consider this the peak of Calhoun's experiments as there were numerous uncontrolled variables like the microbiota within and on the rats. We now know that our bacteria have a significant influence on our behaviour and our metabolic characteristics, for example.
Another consideration: Once the initial population of 8 were put into the universe no further changes to the population were made. From our current understanding of copy numbers of genes and the effects of inbreeding on populations, his theoretically should mean that any normal variation within the behaviour of the rats would have become extreme, and not necessarily a good correlate to a more diverse population.
Some chose to interpret the results was as proof that humans are required to struggle in order to be able to thrive, a very transferrable message given it's adaptability to dominant religious narratives.
I would propose that instead of a race towards destruction, these behaviours indicate a divergence in the species in terms of coping mechanisms under stress - something we have observed in the human population as well, and something that is directly inflamed by imposed stress from those who may not have the best interests of workers and humans at heart. A species can diverge in its behaviour based on stressful environments: either towards control or towards withdrawal. Neither are conducive to community.
Where these results do not translate to in terms of humans is what can be done about it. While the core belief of inevitable maladaptive consequences was a big part of the creation of neoliberal ideas, I believe it extends to containing the behaviours we see under the current state of capitalism. The idea that some may decide to operate mechanisms of control to prevent humans from becoming maladaptive is not too far-fetched I think.
Assuming that this experiment translates to humans ignores the fact that we have the capacity to communicate abstract thought to each other, to plan and work together.
We have a choice, and we can choose to build a world of self actualisation rather than ease.
January 2022
Monty Python-esque humor aside, the concept of the state of being "alive" is a fascinating thought to play with. Being alive entails having a heartbeat - or is it brain activity? Of course, looking at it from a more foundational standpoint, we can say plants, which have neither heart nor brain would still be considered to be alive. Thus, the debate grinds to a halt, revealing two separate viewpoints of "aliveness" when we reach the topic of viruses.
Viruses are alive, because they are capable of reproduction. They contain the genetic code of life, organised upwards from particles, to atoms, to molecules, to strands. Their entire existence wrapped around the nucleic ladder, a rogue program of sequences.
In this way, biological and computer viruses are hardly dissimilar. Both are ideas made real in code. This propagation of ideas is hardly a prerequisite for the determination of life however.
Perhaps it is the measure of cellular machinery that can define life - and this is certainly the case with the smallest of cells. A bacteria begins its life snipped off from it's precursor, whereupon, as an individual, codes held within it must successfully continue the genetically memorialised pathways of creation of molecules, chemicals and structures, and succeed in passing that knowledge onto the next generation.
Even for the longest lived single celled organism, there comes a darkening, an ending, as the membranes accumulate flaws. The water in the cytoplasm within the cell leaks out through the misshapen external fatty layers, becoming more viscous and exponentiating the inexorable spiral of entropy that sees each component fail. The machines grind to a halt.
There may well be, in the primordial soup of the internal mechanisms, the odd chemical reaction, the passing by of protein and substrate, the appearance of some new connection of atoms. A similar process happens in multicellular organisms as the cellular machineries that power individual cells slowly run out of materials and slow, pushing through treacle until finally, there is no more.
If cellular machinery can continue functioning after consciousness, will and intent are all removed, then perhaps the more accurately useful or intuitive concept of death, rests on the philosophical idea that the "being" that imbued that bordered environment with its energy is gone. This being, in order to have functional meaning might be best thought of as an uninterrupted witnessing of its environment. Its way of being is changed by its environment via it's cellular machinery - whether this is epigenetic, chemical, hormonal or electric, and in turn, it changes the environment around it. As levels of complexity become more apparent, these changing dances become the balance of reality as we experience it.
For something to be not alive, then it must be dead, with parrots no exception. If the definition of life is uninterrupted potential for changes to be enacted upon it, in sequence, with the goal of maintaining the ability to continue influencing and being influenced upon by its environment, then death must by binary definition, be the opposite of that. When no real change can be made, there is stagnation. With stagnation comes slowness, until there comes a delay in the chain that cannot be surmounted. Experience, interrupted.
And yet, thinking about the tree in the wood unobserved, it still does indeed fall. Our own perspectives, whilst powered through systems of much higher complexity than the single celled organism, incorporate change into our memories of life - that tree, falling unobserved by sentient eyes will be incorporated into the mycelia of the ground beneath. It's genetic code, proteins and nutrients will be recycled both above and below-ground.
The butterfly flaps its wings, grown in the safety of the fallen tree that was never recorded. Does this mean that viruses are alive?
June 2014
Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is not a specific syndrome, but is instead descriptive of a range of behavioural phenotypes that co-occur. ASD is only diagnosed when social deficits are accompanied by repetitive behaviours, resistance to change and restrictive interests, extending to the point of intellectual disability in more severe cases (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, 2013). These behavioural phenotypes are the result of the interaction of varying genetic and environmental factors as only 10% of persons expressing ASD characteristics have a specific underlying genetic disorder, such as Fragile X Syndrome (Mendelsohn & Schaefer, 2008). The biological mechanisms that underlie these phenotypes are significantly affected by factors that include prenatal exposure to tetragons, epigenetic modifications and other environmental factors. ASD is strongly heritable (Geschwind, 2008) and to date, over 100 gene regions in 44 genomic loci have been implicated in the development of autism (Betancur, 2011). This review will explore the effects of MeCP2 deletions (causing Rett Syndrome) (Archer et al., 2006), AFF2 mutations (which are linked to Fragile X Syndrome) (Jiang et al., 2013) and mutation on the TBX1 gene (Ramelli et al., 2008), which all produce behavioural phenotypes with deficiencies in social communication, with sufferers often experiencing co-morbid ASD or Autism.
Autism/ASD
Autism's primary characteristic is identified as impaired social interaction (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, 2013); however it is still not a well understood condition. There are a number of changes in brain structure that have been linked to the development of ASD behaviours, such as the level of resting brain activity. Brain regions that have been linked to attention-regulation show significantly higher levels of neuronal interconnectivity in children (Supekar et al., 2013) and adolescents (Keown et al., 2013) with ASD (increasing in concordance with the severity of the condition) than unaffected, similar individuals.
It is this hyper-connectivity that influenced the proposal of the “intense world” theory of Autism (H. Markram, Rinaldi, & Markram, 2007), tying Valproic Acid modifications in rats to repetitive actions, social difficulties and withdrawal caused by over-activation of the amygdala and neocortex. The “intense world” theory is one of the most recent and directly contradicts many of the existing theories, which have focussed on hypo-functioning of the amygdala and neocortex (Dziobek, Fleck, Rogers, Wolf, & Convit, 2006; K. Markram, Rinaldi, La Mendola, Sandi, & Markram, 2008), or the underactivation of key brain areas during a wide variety of social and motor tasks (Allen, Müller, & Courchesne, 2004; Müller, Pierce, Ambrose, Allen, & Courchesne, 2001).
ASD is understood to be caused by changes in molecules and proteins encoded by genes, causing impairment in long-range, higher order sensory connections whilst causing an increase or no change in short-range, lower order sensory connections (Supekar et al., 2013), Regardless of the theory used to explain this, it is undeniable that the primary cause of the behavioural phenotypes of autism is a change in the brain's ability to form and maintain connections, caused by a modification to one or more of the regulatory molecules.
A study by Carter and Scherer (2013) observed that GABA releasing neurons lacking in the transcriptional regulatory protein methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) show changes in excitability, plasticity and GABA quantal size(Chao et al., 2010). These changes caused Rett syndrome in the mice studied; a syndrome that causes autistic symptoms in humans, especially females (Carter & Scherer, 2013). Changes in MeCP2 will be explored in more depth, as this is only one of the many regulatory factors controlling Autistic traits.
Genetics of Autism/ASD
Autistic phenotypes are heritable (Devlin & Scherer, 2012; Geschwind, 2011). Twin studies have found concordance rates to be 60-73% for autism and 90-93% for the wider ASD spectrum between monozygotic twins. Dizygotic twins and siblings both had a concordance range of 2.9-14% for autism, and up to 20% for ASD. (Bailey et al., 1995; Devlin & Scherer, 2012; Rosenberg et al., 2009)
The differences seen in concordance rates can be attributed to environmental factors (Bailey et al., 1995), epigenetic differences (Mbadiwe & Millis, 2013; Schanen, 2006) and de novo mutations (Michaelson et al., 2012). Certain genomic loci have been determined to be 'hot spots' for these de novo mutations, where loci with hypermutability properties cause disease genes to present in individuals without a familial history of Autism/ASD. Over two thousand de novo mutations have been identified and linked to ASD traits (Jiang et al., 2013), but most require co-mutation of linked protein-encoding genes to cause the symptoms of ASD (Neale et al., 2012). These mutations can be triggered by environmental factors such as parental age and prenatal exposure to tetragons (Crow, 2000), which can also affect the epigenetic control of relevant protein-encoding genes.
Specific examples
Due to the parameters of this review, only three specific genomic examples will be investigated.
MeCP2 Deletion/Mutation
Region of interest: Xq28
Associated Syndrome: Rett
MeCP2 deletion affects GABAergic neuronal development. X linked genetic change lowers the presynaptic release of both glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 and 2 (Gad1, Gad2). The ability of each affected neuron to excite any other neuron is then lowered, and can alter the strength of inhibition in the brainstem, hippocampus and cortex. This deletion may affect all neurons, or only a subset. Should this subset occur within the forebrain, it will trigger impairments in respiration, motor function, gait and arousal, as well as the presentation of stereotyped behaviours and changes in social tendencies (Archer et al., 2006; Chao et al., 2010).
When MeCP2 is involved, phenotype can change depending on the sex of the affected person. In females, a MeCP2 deletion is mostly associated with Rett syndrome, which is separate from Autism in that other body systems are involved. It is worth noting that Rett syndrome can occur without Xq28 mutation, and that Xq28 mutation can occur and cause more Autistic, rather than Rett phenotypes (Iourov et al., 2013). For males acquiring MeCP2 mutations a duplication is associated with significant features of Autism, whereas females are protected from the full effects of Xq28 duplication syndrome by X inactivation. These females tend towards more psychiatric symptoms, such as anxiety, depression and compulsions (Ramocki et al., 2009).
AFF2 Mutation
Region of interest: Xq28
Associated Syndrome: Fragile X
As above, this mutation affects the Xq28 locus, and is therefore X-linked. These X-linked mutations go some way towards explaining the high male bias seen in Autism presentations (Kirkovski, Enticott, & Fitzgerald, 2013). Phenotypic traits of Fragile X Syndrome include unusual facial features, cognitive impairment and macroorchidism (abnormally large testes). As with Rett syndrome, not all AFF2 mutations lead to autism (30%) and not all autistic presentations can be ascribed to AFF2 mutations (7-8%).
The phenotype of Autism in the context of Fragile X Syndrome is associated with low levels of Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein, which is expressed in all tissues of the body. This syndrome is caused by excessive CGG neucleotide repeats, and can range in severity from non-fragile (6-45 repeats) through to premutation carrier (55-200 repeats) and full mutation (>200 repeats)(Clifford et al., 2007). The number of repeats has a direct influence on the level of FMRP produced, which correlates with the severity of autistic behaviour.
TBX1
Region of interest: 22q11.2
Associated Syndrome: DiGeorge
This autosomal dominant mutation affects the prepulse inhibition of neurons, which is associated with both TBX1 and GNB1l haploinsufficiency, either of which cause a reduction in prepulse inhibition. 35% of patients with mutations in this region develop psychiatric disorders, which include Autism and ASD (Ramelli et al., 2008).
This region can be affected by either microduplication or deletion, but more research is needed on its exact effects. What is known is TBX1 codes for a T-box transcription factor, which can have wide ranging effects, causing cranio-facial, cardiovascular and thymic defects (Paylor et al., 2006).
Medical Issues
As a biotechnologist, the study of Autism is important for deeper understanding of how genetics relate to structure and phenotype. Since it is a genetically diverse disorder, with wide ranging impacts on quality of life, it is ethically necessary to understand the genetic basis for Autism, so that it may be treated, cured or prevented.
The tests used to determine at-risk genotypes are of particular interest in the field of biotechnology. At present, whole genome sequencing is often used to detect correlating mutations, as seen in Michaelson et al. (2012), which can be time consuming. As of 2010, guidelines were proposed to enhance the diagnostic yield of chromosomal microarray analysis, allowing for more sensitive detection of sub-microscopic deletion (Shen et al., 2010). With more sensitive detection, our knowledge of autism will be enhanced into the future. The genes that have been examined in this review demonstrate how advances in gene technology allow us to understand the biological mechanisms that cause Autism.
A greater knowledge base has impacts in genetic clinics, since with more sensitive detection other related correlations can be investigated, such as the examples explored in this review. Once these correlations are understood, better counselling can be given regarding family risk and anticipated severity, both of which can only increase treatment outcomes.
To conclude, our understanding of autism enhances not only treatment and prevention methods, but also increases our knowledge of how genotypes present as phenotypes, and what influences them. This is especially relevant in Autism as it is more heritable and more prevalent than most genetic disorders, leading to a large sample size for correlations and comparisons.
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May 2009
This article argues that the younger generation has wrongly been dubbed the Internet generation, as this is more of a transitional stage. The reason why this generation has been labeled the Internet generation is ostensibly because it is the fist generation to have always had the Internet as a communication tool available to them. Herring believes that this is a transitional stage because the decision makers are, or at least are portrayed as less Internet savvy than the millennials. They did not grow up in a world with Internet and so this affects the way they view the millennials. In a sense, the adults create the world around the millennials and in a way this is as a good thing, as adults have always attempted to work in children's best interests, to do what is good for them, but as the article mentions, the millennials, despite being the least aggressive and violent generation in living memory, are tarred with the brush of the games and movies that are produced for them and which they play. Of course, the mass shooting that take place mostly in the USA cannot be ignored, but this does not mean that as a whole, the generation is more violent because of the games that they play. There is a difference between creeping through a swamp, with a sniper rifle, waiting to blow someone's head off in a video game, and actually doing it.
Everyone manipulates their identity in accordance with the social discourse which they carry within them, which enforces tact and politeness, and a certain way of dressing. While these social nicety rules may not always be adhered to, the decisions that are made are all affected by them, whether it is a rebellion against them, or not. Identity is a core concern of people everywhere and this is defined by being part of groups and having a sense of belonging.
However, the identity of the millennials begs an analysis, since their identity is not only constructed around them, but also, the people who analyse the identity of the millennials are the ones who are creating it. this means that their identity may well not be fixed. The behavior that is flouted around us, may just be an age factor rather than a significant change in human culture, and this will remain an unknown until the true Internet generation rises from the transitional millennials.
May 2009
Discourse has been used in many ways by different types of researchers, and so it's definition extends to not only what is said, who says it and where, but also how and why, and more specifically what influences it to be said. After all, words are meaningless without a social structure to frame them. The article shows that discourse is centred around a text, the discourse practice surrounding it consisting of the production and consumption of the text. This in turn is surrounded by sociocultural practice. What this means is that any analysis of a text must take into account the discourse that centres on it, but also must take into account the sociocultural setting that creates the discourse of the person or people who create and consume the text.
Of course, every discourse is different, and this is affected by the genre that the text is and what setting the text is written. The article mentions that 'media texts are sensitive barometers of cultural change which manifest in their heterogeneity and contradictoriness the often tentative, unfinished and messy nature of change.' This shows that media discourse can reflect more about culture than the text itself. For example, the way writing for newspapers was in the nineteen-seventies is much different to the writing that is now found in the newspapers today. This is seen in less sensationalist writing and seemingly more objective viewpoints. For example, a flu vaccination advertisement of the seventies insists that without the flu vaccination, you will get sick and it will be catastrophic, whereas in the public heath outbreak of Swine flu, the government has changed its discourse from alarmist propaganda to the insistence on calm that is seen now.
There are public and private discourses, for example, the discourse formed by the audience of a television show is large and can form a template for private discourse. Private discourse is often conversational, and in recent years it has become more common to find public discourses imitating private discourses, especially in cooking, or lifestyle programs. As an example, Dr. Harry the vet conducts all of his shows in a very conversational manner, but is undeniably a public discourse for broadcast. In this, the producers attempt to place the audience in an environment which they are comfortable in.
To sum up, the notion of discourse is wide and always changing and while studies may conventionalise both private and public discourse, the scope of its ever-changing nature makes this near impossible.
May 2009
Blame and action need not always be straight forward. The way sentences are constructed can have a great impact on the way an ostensibly objective report is viewed. It is mentioned in the article that through the analysis of the most widely circulated paper (the Sun) in Britain from the dates 10/11/1986 to 3/1/1987, certain trends appear, especially in newspaper reports dealing with rape. The phrase 'stuff happens' is brought to mind while any study of language in reporting takes place, with the further analysis of what makes the 'stuff' happen. The 'stuff happens' comment was mentioned in relation to the recent war in Iraq, however it also holds true in other forms of reporting.
The tone of a sentence is determined by the 'voice' with which it is written. Active voice strongly places all of the 'blame' for the action on whomever performed it, while passive voice, mentioning the perpetrator, de-emphasises it's role in the action. Middle voice is what is used in the phrase 'stuff happens'. The perpetrator of the happening is not specified, and this leads to a sub-conscious assumption that stuff happens by itself - nothing causes it to happen, and this can happen greatly in 'objective reporting' especially that dealing with war and other violent crimes.
This article is specifically dealing with the crime of rape and its portrayal through word choice and sentence structure. As shown through the examples given, 'fiends' and 'monsters', attack unavailable women, which is shown through the choice of description of wives, mothers, loving daughters etc. Men who commit these same crimes without being labeled as inhuman, attack 'available' women, shown by the fact that they are blonde, divorcees or prostitutes.
This links to the complaint that men view women as either saints or prostitutes, and this view is perpetuated through media. The language of the analysed time was far more obviously sensationalised than modern reporting, which aims to be very objective and remove bias, however under analysis, this is not the case. Middle voice is still used to imply that crimes just happen, that they are unavoidable and excuses are still built into the naming of victims and perpetrators. Careful observation will show that the crimes described in the most gritty manner will be perpetrated by inhuman monsters rather than the quite understandable attacking of available women. The mere demonising of the woman 'clare' who spoke up about the NRL football sex scandal goes to show this. Doubt is built into paragraphs in order to make the reader doubt not only the validity of her claims but also her personal character. It is far past time that the victim stops being blamed for crimes not committed by them.
May 2009
Signs have meaning, however, meanings are not immutable and fixed but fluidly contextual since a sign may mean for one person something different to what it may mean for another. Words convey meaning but there is nothing inherent in the word to suggest it's meaning. What a word means is decided by language, history and context, for example: the same word in different sentences can have connotations vastly different in tone. What this article is saying is that, whilst words have associated meaning, as do visible symbols, this meaning is ever-changing with each audience to the sign. For example, the word cat brings up many different images. For a person with a cat allergy, their reaction may well be stress and disgust, but this will not be the case with every person who sees the word cat, as the word does not invoke the cat itself, but merely the meaning that has been attached to the word. The study of this meaning is seimology and this transforms meaning from an identity to a difference. Instead of invoking the idea of "a cat", instead, the cat is "not a dog, not a chair etc." This creates much less specific meanings for words, and the concept can mean many different permutations of a theme.
The founder of seimology, while presenting a cohesive argument and theory overlooked unintentional signs and assumed that the the role of the sender of the sign was an important one. Also, there is no real difference between what he labeled as the signifier and the signified. The theory evolved to address these issues by expanding the meaning of signs to include whatever means something -anything- to somebody. However, another problem was detected - that of change. If meaning is relational and can change depending on the viewer, then it is wrong to assume that the system used for understanding how meaning is created is static. It was argued that meaning could not be exactly reproduced.
Since meanings are so able to be manipulated, this has political and social consequences.With the choice of words comes a choice of interpretations. The article provides the example of the European 'invasion' / 'settlement' of Australia, and the associated 'occupation and disinheritance of the culture of the Aboriginal people' / 'burden of care of the Aboriginal savages'. These both are two viewpoint that are in some ways accurate, but the choice of words portrays a very different picture in each of them. In one the British are the invaders, taking land, culture and people away from where they belong. In the other, they are seen as kindly conquerors, taking care of the 'savages'. As seen in this example, words can be twisted to manipulate meaning to transfer blame.
In the here and now, meanings are used to sell products, win voters etc. and it is imperative that all meanings are recognised.
May 2009
Audience research has changed greatly with the obvious changes in audience. With conventional forms of media, such as television, radio and newspapers, audiences were passive. The experience of reading or viewing occurred, and extended no further. With the availability of interactive forms of media like the Internet, a phenomena of produceage has become more widespread. In Couldry (2005), an example is provided of an advertisement which offered shares in a film production in return for becoming an extra in the film. This example shows that there has been a power shift from the producers to the audience and it is this power shift which will be discussed.
This power shift has been triggered mainly by the diffusion of audience. This diffused audience no longer relates most closely to its locality, but rather to a global community. The diffused audience has it's permanent umbilical cord to technology, where technology has permeated every aspect of modern life, from socialisation to work to entertainment. This audience is different to previous audiences, which were generally either simple or mass. Simple audiences could be found through theatre or literature prior to the "media age", while mass audiences would be found through radio, film, television and newspapers throughout the late nineteen and the twentieth centuries. From this point onwards, audiences have muted into the diffused audience. In the life experiences of the diffused audience, media is no longer a "mass" experience, such as a cinema viewing or even television and radio broadcasts, as the media available is able to be fully customised. The emphasis is now less on the experience of community through common media, and more focused on the experience of individuality through customisation.
However, while diffused audiences celebrate customisation, they are inundated with media from every facet of life. Some examples include televised signs, mobile phones and newspapers. This means that the media is almost impossible to escape without becoming a hermit. Where the media is so diffused, it is logical to draw the conclusion that the audience is also diffused. The implications this has for audience research involve studying not just the direct interactions between people and media, and not only merely observing the direct media consumption of subjects, but instead studying the culture as a whole, in the context of media.
Power shifts occur whenever balances change, and in the media culture that is commonplace in many countries, suddenly, no longer are producers divided from audiences by a specific set of criteria. Instead, audiences now create via Youtube and blogs, a role that previously had been very specific to producers. This homogenisation is still taking place, disorientating many institutions set up for profit from production, who are experiencing a backlash against their perceived power.
April 2009
Calling today's age an "information age" or "knowledge age" is somewhat of a fallacy, as this is not the only age in which there has been transfer of information. From homing pigeons to books and the tombs of the rich, there has always been a transfer of information from one person to another. Knowledge and information is power and productivity. To emphasise the knowledge we now posses as somehow being better or more complete than the knowledge we possessed in earlier ages would be arrogant and so Castells attempts to relabel this era as a network society, with the following criteria: Network societies are primarily characterised by their scalability, flexibility and survivability. As an example, the Internet. From its very beginnings to where it is now spanning the world, connecting every place in some way instantaneously,it fulfils each of these criteria. It can change as needs, can be as large or small as necessary and the Internet as a virtual structure will not fail if one node does. The Internet's only vulnerability is in the mechanism by which it is connected, rather than the network itself.
This network society has created great change in the practices and concepts that were used to govern life during the industrial age, for example. The concept of "clock time" and the functioning of a highly routinised and structured life became commonplace at the beginning of the industrial age.The network society has altered the relationship between time and space, so that time becomes less important as a consideration in life. There then becomes two spaces, coexisting intertwined: the space of places and the space of flows. These can blur together at times, leading to a "doubling of place" where consciousness can exist in both the place and flow of a space. The space of flows is accessed through technology, and while communities and people can value the space of places, emphasising locality and experience over the spatial form of the network, whose logic can be transitory.
Castell's hypothesis is that: "the culture of the network society is a culture of protocols of communication between all cultures of the world, developed on the basis of common belief in the power of networking and ... giving to others and receiving from others." He supports this with the example of hackers and their ethical code, which consists of two components: a want to innovate for purposes other than for capital gain and with this, a want to share this instant gratification. Instead of "trade secrets", in the network society knowledge is pooled, allowing further innovation and as innovation is the source of power and wealth, this then becomes the culture of the society, with an acceptance of the knowledge others have, and a greater appreciation of diversity.
March 2009
Media involvement does not necessarily require a set 'audience'-'performer' relationship, as evidenced by phone and Internet communication. However, this can be easily forgotten in our studies of media which focus on the more static relationships within television, news and radio consumption.
The excerpt from Moores (2004) discusses both sets of technologies and how we relate to them. The sense of 'doubling of place' in it's most literal form can be seen in strict 'audience'-'performer' roles. This doubling occurs when an audience views information presented in a way that implies immediacy. For example, contestants on a game show appear to play live through camera work and careful stage-managing, but the show is made long before it is broadcast and this creates a sense for the audience of being in more than one place at the same time. It can also lead a viewer to feel emotionally connected to someone they have never met and so in this way, the audience is not only time shifted, but also displaced from their usual settings and made to feel present in the company of people they may never have met. This emotional connection is what leads society to feel collectively about certain issues, which may even interrupt their daily routine, such as in the case of a famous public figure's death.
Of course, the situation can become more complicated when the two realities - that of the audience and that of the performer collide, as can happen with the internet and telephone more so than with more static technologies. The excerpt mentions an anecdote about a young woman holding a 'private' conversation while in a public space. Her audience in this public domain assisted her in this, turning away so as to appear disinterested, and yet one audience member refused to comply with this unspoken social construct, and so while in her 'private' conversation, she was the audience, she became more aware that she was a performer.
Media not only contributes to societal rules and routines, but also to a sense of time and place. However, if subjective and objective place collide, it can cause a jarring effect. Ultimately, we must always consider that the times and places that are subjectively experienced through media usage are merely human constructs, and yet this subjective experience can be more powerful than an objective observation.
March 2009
Media broadcasts are a daily occurrence and as such, they ground us. When a television channel can be switched on to regular programming, clocks become rather obsolete. Certain programming combinations are on each day at the same times, to cater to the audiences who are more likely to watch them. These generalisations are deeply ingrained in our society. For example; the six o'clock news is designed for nine-to-five workers, afternoon programming is more often than not, targeted at the stay at home mother or wife and children's programming dominates the after school spot.
This grounding mainly affects perception of time, as well as the sense of human interconnectedness. Media becomes a part of daily lives through domestication, and as a part of integration builds human behaviour into routine. Since television programming, newspapers and magazines have different audiences, their news cycle is also affected. Magazines may have anywhere from a weekly to a quarterly news cycle, newspapers generally have a twenty-four hour cycle and television can reach out with all the immediacy of a situation, and this is becuase of the demands of the viewers. John Harlty makes mention of frequencies, which are involved in subjective experience of time. These frequencies are labelled within the cycle of creation, circulation and consumption. In most of his writing however, it is the frequency of circulation which is discussed most.
Wavelength in Media works in the same way as in the physical world. The formula, frequency multiplied by wavelength equals a constant still holds true in that whenever the frequency goes up, the wavelength goes down. Media can be ranged along a scale from low to high frequency with todays paper being high frequency, reaching less people (wavelength) with more immediacy than for example, cave paintings - which have an extremely low frequency, and yet they are known about all over the world.
As culture has accepted technology more and more closely into daily routines, the frequencies of new media have become faster and faster. From cave-paintings, to bas-relief and carvings, hand scribed books and letters, the printing press, radio, television and the internet, news can now be merely seconds in the creation. High frequency includes any publication with a frequency less than a week, anywhere between this and a year is described as midrange. Anything longer is low frequency and as society has slid up the scale towards high frequency, with "shocking" releases of news before the event, and a constant stream of information, so lives and routines have changed to match this due to a change in subjective experiencing of time.
March 2009
A concept goes through many stages in its lifetime. It begins as something magical to be revered, it then becomes "the next big thing" and eventually works its way inextricably into our culture and social interactions. Of course, not all concepts live forever, or stay in use, but all stay in our cultural consciousness. Media studies in different eras has focused on different stages in the life of a concept. Technological determinism states that it is not only the role of the consumer to marvel at technologies but also to demand bigger (or smaller), better, faster, and simply more in the way of invention. This view assumes that humans use tools, machines and concepts without fundamental change to themselves or their social order.
Domestication sprung from the ashes of determinism, as constructivism took hold within the study of media. Domestication is the process of taking technologies and introducing them into the places in society where they change the fundamental structure of society while being completely taken for granted. As domestication takes place, and tames technology, people become used to the idea of having the technology and so find more uses to rely on it for. As an example, when computers were first released, there was no real function for them, and yet we welcomed them in their myriad forms into our homes, not really for functional purposes but so as not to be "left behind".
And this is what is happening in so many forms around our homes today, with the television and the mobile phone. Domestication of the media is not only about having the latest technology but also the latest version of it, and this is what makes it different from the usual definition of the term. In the past, we have domesticated cows, horses, wolves, cats and pigs. In this process we have selected the most desirable features (different types of dogs, the disappearance of tusks from pigs, and horns from sheep as a prime example) and in doing so, have changed the very nature and temperament of the animal. This is what we attempt to do with media. We bring it into our homes in much the same process, but while once domesticated, animals remain much the same, only perhaps slightly improving wool quality (for example), media is constantly changing in form and in the types of information that it brings into the home.
This has been happening since the beginning of invention, from the wheel to the sundial and to more modern technologies such as the mobile and television.
March 2009
Media has always been a tool for communication. In older forms of media (such as television, newspapers and books) the direct communication is one way. These forms have the potential to spark debate and further communication within small groups or communities of people, which increases their connectedness with each other and the wider world. Later forms such as the Internet have the potential to create a global network, stretching across the planet. But, it must be asked, is this a case of quantity over quality? As a group, we love to communicate, interact and connect. We like feeling that we are a part of something bigger - a part of the town, a patriotic member of our country, a citizen of the world, and this is why we integrate media rituals into our lives. As Couldry (2003) states; "Formalised action... implies that 'ritual' involves a recognisable pattern, form or shape which gives meaning to that action. To see 'ritual'... as action involving broad, even transcendent values - is compatible (with formalised action)"
These transcendent values are this feeling of interconnectedness, which we immerse ourselves in on a daily basis, whether it be music, books, television, the Internet, or any other form. This immersion allows social order to function. The mere writing down of rules (a classic example is the ten commandments) imposes a social normality into our way of thinking. Media influences us in many ways, even in non-conscious ones. By becoming aware of something, we have an opportunity to form an opinion on it, whether that be politics, the very nature of social cohesiveness, or whether or not to have MacDonald's for lunch. Without information we cannot make decisions, and the media is how we obtain this information. Of course, media, while playing a large part in the continuation of societal order, must not be mistaken for a representation of the social whole. Our thirst for information allows social order to maintain itself.
The media process has always been viewed in many different lights - some positive and some negative. On the one hand media has brought us closer together and given us more of a sense of interconnectedness, while at the same time it has forced us apart, into more superficial relationships with individuals. As an information medium, as a regulator of societal order, or simply as a part of our life, a rejection of media is a rejection of the interconnectedness of communities as a whole, and thus, regardless of differing opinions on the subject, media is here to stay.