Political & Academic Commentary

For any song to be considered political, there must be an encoding of messages. The song SHUM by the Ukrainian band Go-A is a masterpiece of both music and polity. The ultimate call-out song, particularly given its ability to cause stir at the global platform Eurovision. The theme centred around a reawakening after the pandemic seems worthy of a session of decoding. I acknowledge my biases of being white, Australian, a non- Ukrainian speaker, and exposed to capitalism. I welcome being corrected by those who have more experience with the situation and speakers, and it is why I will only attempt a visual decoding - the nuances of Ukrainian are better addressed by someone more familiar with the language. 

Using the Official music video, accessible wherever it is hosted, but in context, the English speaking world, there are three flashed ideas to prompt the video, accompanied by three hawkish shrieks: the image of an only smokestack, the lead singer, and a hawk, this being commonly used as a colloquial symbol for Russia, and it’s associated surveillance. 

The band members unveil and start an antiquated behemoth of a car - their destination? A snow covered clearing. As they travel, leads arms outstretched, the hawk appears, observing their movement, exposed from above. The singer stares straight forward, proud and defiant. They arrive at the clearing, arms crossed.

They walk across a barren field with rows of snow - somewhat reminiscent of a graveyard. Upon arrival, they uncover violin cases. It comes as something of a surprise to the historian that the contents are in fact, musical instruments. They play, the fire is lit, and citizens come, decked in full PPE, to then remove this protection as the dancers rave. There is a beat throb at 1 minute 30 seconds where the lead singer adopts a “bring it on” pose. The video cuts to a scene of Chernobyl, the site of nuclear meltdown, which zooms for 5 seconds to then cut to the image of the hawk once more. The dancers slow, until, with a clap the lead singer releases them. The dancers move in unity, faster until with a last, long hawklike shrill, the song ends. The tone is cut off abruptly and discordantly as the hawk lands on her arm. They stare at each other. Her expression is fixed. The end.

The most powerful defense against abuse is open communication - it’s why abusive partners will threaten consequences and increase their perceived control when it appears their abuses will come to light.

"The evidence [that the politicians elected as representatives are, in fact murdering] will eventually be so overwhelming that they will begin to realise that they, are the target of genocide." Ricardo Bossi, 26th of January 2022, uploaded to the AustraliaOneParty_Official channel on Telegram at 12:54AM. The channel had, as of 11:17PM on the 29th of January 2022, a membership of 38767 subscribers (0.1% of the population of Australia). 

The moral struggle between freedom, justice and parity have been a consistent feature of the divides between those traditionally considered “left-leaning”, and those on “the Right”. Moderate citizens (the majority of Australia, as proven at the last two equality related referendums) may hold beliefs ranging from “It should be that everyone is equal, but we’re not quite there yet” to “I see differences in people, but that doesn’t mean they are not worthy of my respect”.

The extreme ends of the left and right can be summarised to: the belief that everyone is equal, a present tense that causes great offence when evidence or actions are presented to the contrary; and the belief that there are inherent differences between us as individuals, meaning that inequality is the natural order and inevitable.

At the very end of the spectrum of inequality are groups that prefer the name White Supremacists. These groups often base their policies and procedures on the then Nazi regime of World War II, and use many of the same propaganda techniques. It should be worthy of note that the United Australia Party and Australia One Parties have a lot of cross talk, and as reported by Associate Editor of Crikey, Cam Wilson, two of Craig Kelly’s supporting team members are heavily involved in the production of online videos, many of which feature interviews with Riccardo Bosi, Pete Evans, and Proud Boy Tim Wilms. The Australia One server often mentions calling on Craig Kelly, and there are public tweets where discussion of issues of importance has been raised.

Under the stated democracy model proposed by this party, it seems reasonable that the decision to participate in a movement such as this should be done under the informed consent model, and as a general rule manipulation is generally considered to be a violation of that consent, if it has not been agreed to. I would like to present and analyse some screenshots from the group – their statement of beliefs and alliances, in their own words.

Who are the organisations and groups attempting to form an alliance to create a worried standing army?

Defining Political Islam as a banned terrorist identity is not in line with the majority values, according to research on racial beliefs and attitudes, and is a holdover from American War on Terror ideology. It is also an attractive value for those who might have once been called Nazis, but now prefer White Supremacists.

Establishing Personal Safety and Self Protection will be about guns – but given our military is well equipped, well trained, and this is an official attempt to gain formal power through government, it is unlikely that an ex-military commander would attempt to rally troops against the government, which begs the question of who those guns will be used on, particularly if the penalty for speaking against the government is imprisonment, and acting against it (even in a perceived way) incurs the death penalty.

Concessions to the billionaires are obvious in the modifications to the renewables industry, and the single federal expenditure tax (which should warrant more investigation into the tentative connection between the Australia One and United Australia Party, and therefore also the Liberal party, where those votes flow to)

The already illegal practice of full-term abortion, and it’s associated organ-trafficking alarmism indicates a connection to the Evangelical movement, which started it’s public and vocal concern about Abortion in 2007, partly in response to  the book 6 Big Big Big Angels, discussed on the not just notes blog (https://www.notjustnotes.ws/littlelittlebabies.htm), a precursor to the other prolific writings and guidance of Tony Idemudia Asakpa (https://web.archive.org/web/20101206051144/http://www.asakpa.com/basis_for_universalism.html). It is not possible to discount that the linked blog may have been investigated by conservative politicians, as it’s author seems to have been connected to Ron Paul.

We have already held a lawful referendum on the practice of marriage – in this situation, claiming that the lawfulness of a decision should be in question because you do not agree with the majority (that gay people getting married is not really a big deal, and Indigenous rights should be human rights) is the finest example of a historically precedented slippery slope. It turns out that the slippery slope was never about whether equal rights for some might mean equal rights for all.

The images, rhetoric and constant bombardment of notifications and misinformation is an effective tactic to create a group that is worried, stressed and feels under threat. Manipulation and lies are being used to create particular emotions, and for anyone with a currently conservative lean to their ideology, it is important to gain a good understanding of who your group is aligning themselves with.

Monty Python-esque humor aside, the concept of the state of being "alive" is a fascinating thought to play with. Being alive entails having a heartbeat - or is it brain activity? Of course, looking at it from a more foundational standpoint, we can say plants, which have neither heart nor brain would still be considered to be alive. Thus, the debate grinds to a halt, revealing two separate viewpoints of "aliveness" when we reach the topic of viruses.

Viruses are alive, because they are capable of reproduction. They contain the genetic code of life, organised upwards from particles, to atoms, to molecules, to strands. Their entire existence wrapped around the nucleic ladder, a rogue program of sequences.

In this way, biological and computer viruses are hardly dissimilar. Both are ideas made real in code. This propagation of ideas is hardly a prerequisite for the determination of life however.

Perhaps it is the measure of cellular machinery that can define life - and this is certainly the case with the smallest of cells. A bacteria begins its life snipped off from it's precursor, whereupon, as an individual, codes held within it must successfully continue the genetically memorialised pathways of creation of molecules, chemicals and structures, and succeed in passing that knowledge onto the next generation.

Even for the longest lived single celled organism, there comes a darkening, an ending, as the membranes accumulate flaws. The water in the cytoplasm within the cell leaks out through the misshapen external fatty layers, becoming more viscous and exponentiating the inexorable spiral of entropy that sees each component fail. The machines grind to a halt.

There may well be, in the primordial soup of the internal mechanisms, the odd chemical reaction, the passing by of protein and substrate, the appearance of some new connection of atoms. A similar process happens in multicellular organisms as the cellular machineries that power individual cells slowly run out of materials and slow, pushing through treacle until finally, there is no more.

If cellular machinery can continue functioning after consciousness, will and intent are all removed, then perhaps the more accurately useful or intuitive concept of death, rests on the philosophical idea that the "being" that imbued that bordered environment with its energy is gone. This being, in order to have functional meaning might be best thought of as an uninterrupted witnessing of its environment. Its way of being is changed by its environment via it's cellular machinery - whether this is epigenetic, chemical, hormonal or electric, and in turn, it changes the environment around it. As levels of complexity become more apparent, these changing dances become the balance of reality as we experience it.

For something to be not alive, then it must be dead, with parrots no exception. If the definition of life is uninterrupted potential for changes to be enacted upon it, in sequence, with the goal of maintaining the ability to continue influencing and being influenced upon by its environment, then death must by binary definition, be the opposite of that. When no real change can be made, there is stagnation. With stagnation comes slowness, until there comes a delay in the chain that cannot be surmounted. Experience, interrupted.

And yet, thinking about the tree in the wood unobserved, it still does indeed fall. Our own perspectives, whilst powered through systems of much higher complexity than the single celled organism, incorporate change into our memories of life - that tree, falling unobserved by sentient eyes will be incorporated into the mycelia of the ground beneath. It's genetic code, proteins and nutrients will be recycled both above and below-ground.

The butterfly flaps its wings, grown in the safety of the fallen tree that was never recorded. Does this mean that viruses are alive?

Introduction

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is not a specific syndrome, but is instead descriptive of a range of behavioural phenotypes that co-occur. ASD is only diagnosed when social deficits are accompanied by repetitive behaviours, resistance to change and restrictive interests, extending to the point of intellectual disability in more severe cases (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, 2013). These behavioural phenotypes are the result of the interaction of varying genetic and environmental factors as only 10% of persons expressing ASD characteristics have a specific underlying genetic disorder, such as Fragile X Syndrome (Mendelsohn & Schaefer, 2008). The biological mechanisms that underlie these phenotypes are significantly affected by factors that include prenatal exposure to tetragons, epigenetic modifications and other environmental factors. ASD is strongly heritable (Geschwind, 2008) and to date, over 100 gene regions in 44 genomic loci have been implicated in the development of autism (Betancur, 2011). This review will explore the effects of MeCP2 deletions (causing Rett Syndrome) (Archer et al., 2006), AFF2 mutations (which are linked to Fragile X Syndrome) (Jiang et al., 2013) and mutation on the TBX1 gene (Ramelli et al., 2008), which all produce behavioural phenotypes with deficiencies in social communication, with sufferers often experiencing co-morbid ASD or Autism.

Autism/ASD

Autism's primary characteristic is identified as impaired social interaction (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, 2013); however it is still not a well understood condition. There are a number of changes in brain structure that have been linked to the development of ASD behaviours, such as the level of resting brain activity. Brain regions that have been linked to attention-regulation show significantly higher levels of neuronal interconnectivity in children (Supekar et al., 2013) and adolescents (Keown et al., 2013) with ASD (increasing in concordance with the severity of the condition) than unaffected, similar individuals.

It is this hyper-connectivity that influenced the proposal of the “intense world” theory of Autism (H. Markram, Rinaldi, & Markram, 2007), tying Valproic Acid modifications in rats to repetitive actions, social difficulties and withdrawal caused by over-activation of the amygdala and neocortex. The “intense world” theory is one of the most recent and directly contradicts many of the existing theories, which have focussed on hypo-functioning of the amygdala and neocortex (Dziobek, Fleck, Rogers, Wolf, & Convit, 2006; K. Markram, Rinaldi, La Mendola, Sandi, & Markram, 2008), or the underactivation of key brain areas during a wide variety of social and motor tasks (Allen, Müller, & Courchesne, 2004; Müller, Pierce, Ambrose, Allen, & Courchesne, 2001).

ASD is understood to be caused by changes in molecules and proteins encoded by genes, causing impairment in long-range, higher order sensory connections whilst causing an increase or no change in short-range, lower order sensory connections (Supekar et al., 2013), Regardless of the theory used to explain this, it is undeniable that the primary cause of the behavioural phenotypes of autism is a change in the brain's ability to form and maintain connections, caused by a modification to one or more of the regulatory molecules.

A study by Carter and Scherer (2013) observed that GABA releasing neurons lacking in the transcriptional regulatory protein methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) show changes in excitability, plasticity and GABA quantal size(Chao et al., 2010). These changes caused Rett syndrome in the mice studied; a syndrome that causes autistic symptoms in humans, especially females (Carter & Scherer, 2013). Changes in MeCP2 will be explored in more depth, as this is only one of the many regulatory factors controlling Autistic traits.

Genetics of Autism/ASD

Autistic phenotypes are heritable (Devlin & Scherer, 2012; Geschwind, 2011). Twin studies have found concordance rates to be 60-73% for autism and 90-93% for the wider ASD spectrum between monozygotic twins. Dizygotic twins and siblings both had a concordance range of 2.9-14% for autism, and up to 20% for ASD. (Bailey et al., 1995; Devlin & Scherer, 2012; Rosenberg et al., 2009)

The differences seen in concordance rates can be attributed to environmental factors (Bailey et al., 1995), epigenetic differences (Mbadiwe & Millis, 2013; Schanen, 2006) and de novo mutations (Michaelson et al., 2012). Certain genomic loci have been determined to be 'hot spots' for these de novo mutations, where loci with hypermutability properties cause disease genes to present in individuals without a familial history of Autism/ASD. Over two thousand de novo mutations have been identified and linked to ASD traits (Jiang et al., 2013), but most require co-mutation of linked protein-encoding genes to cause the symptoms of ASD (Neale et al., 2012)⁠. These mutations can be triggered by environmental factors such as parental age and prenatal exposure to tetragons (Crow, 2000)⁠, which can also affect the epigenetic control of relevant protein-encoding genes.

Specific examples

Due to the parameters of this review, only three specific genomic examples will be investigated.

MeCP2 Deletion/Mutation

Region of interest: Xq28

Associated Syndrome: Rett

MeCP2 deletion affects GABAergic neuronal development. X linked genetic change lowers the presynaptic release of both glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 and 2 (Gad1, Gad2). The ability of each affected neuron to excite any other neuron is then lowered, and can alter the strength of inhibition in the brainstem, hippocampus and cortex. This deletion may affect all neurons, or only a subset. Should this subset occur within the forebrain, it will trigger impairments in respiration, motor function, gait and arousal, as well as the presentation of stereotyped behaviours and changes in social tendencies (Archer et al., 2006; Chao et al., 2010).

When MeCP2 is involved, phenotype can change depending on the sex of the affected person. In females, a MeCP2 deletion is mostly associated with Rett syndrome, which is separate from Autism in that other body systems are involved. It is worth noting that Rett syndrome can occur without Xq28 mutation, and that Xq28 mutation can occur and cause more Autistic, rather than Rett phenotypes (Iourov et al., 2013). For males acquiring MeCP2 mutations a duplication is associated with significant features of Autism, whereas females are protected from the full effects of Xq28 duplication syndrome by X inactivation. These females tend towards more psychiatric symptoms, such as anxiety, depression and compulsions (Ramocki et al., 2009).

AFF2 Mutation

Region of interest: Xq28

Associated Syndrome: Fragile X

As above, this mutation affects the Xq28 locus, and is therefore X-linked. These X-linked mutations go some way towards explaining the high male bias seen in Autism presentations (Kirkovski, Enticott, & Fitzgerald, 2013). Phenotypic traits of Fragile X Syndrome include unusual facial features, cognitive impairment and macroorchidism (abnormally large testes). As with Rett syndrome, not all AFF2 mutations lead to autism (30%) and not all autistic presentations can be ascribed to AFF2 mutations (7-8%). 

The phenotype of Autism in the context of Fragile X Syndrome is associated with low levels of Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein, which is expressed in all tissues of the body. This syndrome is caused by excessive CGG neucleotide repeats, and can range in severity from non-fragile (6-45 repeats) through to premutation carrier (55-200 repeats) and full mutation (>200 repeats)(Clifford et al., 2007). The number of repeats has a direct influence on the level of FMRP produced, which correlates with the severity of autistic behaviour.

TBX1 

Region of interest: 22q11.2

Associated Syndrome: DiGeorge

This autosomal dominant mutation affects the prepulse inhibition of neurons, which is associated with both TBX1 and GNB1l haploinsufficiency, either of which cause a reduction in prepulse inhibition. 35% of patients with mutations in this region develop psychiatric disorders, which include Autism and ASD (Ramelli et al., 2008).

This region can be affected by either microduplication or deletion, but more research is needed on its exact effects. What is known is TBX1 codes for a T-box transcription factor, which can have wide ranging effects, causing cranio-facial, cardiovascular and thymic defects  (Paylor et al., 2006).

Medical Issues

As a biotechnologist, the study of Autism is important for deeper understanding of how genetics relate to structure and phenotype. Since it is a genetically diverse disorder, with wide ranging impacts on quality of life, it is ethically necessary to understand the genetic basis for Autism, so that it may be treated, cured or prevented. 

The tests used to determine at-risk genotypes are of particular interest in the field of biotechnology. At present, whole genome sequencing is often used to detect correlating mutations, as seen in Michaelson et al. (2012), which can be time consuming. As of 2010, guidelines were proposed to enhance the diagnostic yield of chromosomal microarray analysis, allowing for more sensitive detection of sub-microscopic deletion (Shen et al., 2010). With more sensitive detection, our knowledge of autism will be enhanced into the future. The genes that have been examined in this review demonstrate how advances in gene technology allow us to understand the biological mechanisms that cause Autism. 

A greater knowledge base has impacts in genetic clinics, since with more sensitive detection other related correlations can be investigated, such as the examples explored in this review. Once these correlations are understood, better counselling can be given regarding family risk and anticipated severity, both of which can only increase treatment outcomes.

To conclude, our understanding of autism enhances not only treatment and prevention methods, but also increases our knowledge of how genotypes present as phenotypes, and what influences them. This is especially relevant in Autism as it is more heritable and more prevalent than most genetic disorders, leading to a large sample size for correlations and comparisons.

References

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This article argues that the younger generation has wrongly  been dubbed the Internet generation, as this is more of a transitional stage. The reason why this generation has been labeled the Internet generation is ostensibly because it is the fist generation to have always had the Internet as a communication tool available to them. Herring believes that this is a transitional stage because the decision makers are, or at least are portrayed as less Internet savvy than the millennials. They did not grow up in a world with Internet and so this affects the way they view the millennials. In a sense, the adults create the world around the millennials and in a way this is as a good thing, as adults have always attempted to work in children's best interests, to do what is good for them, but as the article mentions, the millennials, despite being the least aggressive and violent generation in living memory, are tarred with the brush of the games and movies that are produced for them and which they play. Of course, the mass shooting that take place mostly in the USA cannot be ignored, but this does not mean that as a whole, the generation is more violent because of the games that they play. There is a difference between creeping through a swamp, with a sniper rifle, waiting to blow someone's head off in a video game, and actually doing it.

Everyone manipulates their identity in accordance with the social discourse which they carry within them, which enforces tact and politeness, and a certain way of dressing. While these social nicety rules may not always be adhered to, the decisions that are made are all affected by them, whether it is a rebellion against them, or not. Identity is a core concern of people everywhere and this is defined by being part of groups and having a sense of belonging.

However, the identity of the millennials begs an analysis, since their identity is not only constructed around them, but also, the people who analyse the identity of the millennials are the ones who are creating it. this means that their identity may well not be fixed. The behavior that is flouted around us, may just be an age factor rather than a significant change in human culture, and this will remain an unknown until the true Internet generation rises from the transitional millennials.

Discourse has been used in many ways by different types of researchers, and so it's definition extends to not only what is said, who says it and where, but also how and why, and more specifically  what influences it to be said. After all, words are meaningless without a social structure to frame them. The article shows that discourse is centred around a text, the discourse practice surrounding it consisting of the production and consumption of the text. This in turn is surrounded by sociocultural practice. What this means is that any analysis of a text must take into account the discourse that centres on it, but also must take into account the sociocultural setting that creates the discourse of the person or people who create and consume the text.

Of course, every discourse is different, and this is affected by the genre that the text is and what setting the text is written. The article mentions that 'media texts are sensitive barometers of cultural change which manifest in their heterogeneity and contradictoriness the often tentative, unfinished and messy nature of change.' This shows that media discourse can reflect more about culture than the text itself. For example, the way writing for newspapers was in the nineteen-seventies is much different to the writing that is now found in the newspapers today. This is seen in less sensationalist writing and seemingly more objective viewpoints. For example, a flu vaccination advertisement of the seventies insists that without the flu vaccination, you will get sick and it will be catastrophic, whereas in the public heath outbreak of Swine flu, the government has changed its discourse from alarmist propaganda to the  insistence on calm that is seen now.

There are public and private discourses, for example, the discourse formed by the audience of a television show is large and can form a template for private discourse. Private discourse is often conversational, and in recent years it has become more common to find public discourses imitating private discourses, especially in cooking, or lifestyle programs. As an example, Dr. Harry the vet conducts all of his shows in a very conversational manner, but is undeniably a public discourse for broadcast. In this, the producers attempt to place the audience in an environment which they are comfortable in.

To sum up, the notion of discourse is wide and always changing and while studies may conventionalise both private and public discourse, the scope of its ever-changing nature makes this near impossible.

Blame and action need not always be straight forward. The way sentences are constructed can have a great impact on the way an ostensibly objective report is viewed. It is mentioned in the article that through the analysis of the most widely circulated paper (the Sun) in Britain from the dates 10/11/1986 to 3/1/1987, certain trends appear, especially in newspaper reports dealing with rape. The phrase 'stuff happens' is brought to mind while any study of language in reporting takes place, with the further analysis of what makes the 'stuff' happen. The 'stuff happens' comment was mentioned in relation to the recent war in Iraq, however it  also holds true in other forms of reporting.

The tone of a sentence is determined by the 'voice' with which it is written. Active voice strongly places all of the 'blame' for the action on whomever performed it, while passive voice, mentioning the perpetrator, de-emphasises it's role in the action. Middle voice is what is used in the phrase 'stuff happens'. The perpetrator of the happening is not specified, and this leads to a sub-conscious assumption that stuff happens by itself - nothing causes it to happen, and this can happen greatly in 'objective reporting' especially that dealing with war and other violent crimes.

This article is specifically dealing with the crime of rape and its portrayal through word choice and sentence structure. As shown through the examples given, 'fiends' and 'monsters',  attack unavailable women, which is shown through the choice of description of wives, mothers, loving daughters etc. Men who commit these same crimes without being labeled as inhuman, attack 'available' women, shown by the fact that they are blonde, divorcees or prostitutes.

This links to the complaint that men view women as either saints or prostitutes, and this view is perpetuated through media. The language of the analysed time was far more obviously sensationalised than modern reporting, which aims to be very objective and remove bias, however under analysis, this is not the case. Middle voice is still used to imply that crimes just happen, that they are unavoidable and excuses are still built into the naming of victims and perpetrators. Careful observation will show that the crimes described in the most gritty manner will be perpetrated by inhuman monsters rather than the quite understandable attacking of available women. The mere demonising of the woman 'clare' who spoke up about the NRL football sex scandal goes to show this. Doubt is built into paragraphs in order to make the reader doubt not only the validity of her claims but also her personal character. It is far past time that the victim stops being blamed for crimes not committed by them.

Signs have meaning, however, meanings are not immutable and fixed but fluidly contextual since a sign may mean for one person something different to what it may mean for another. Words convey meaning but there is nothing inherent in the word to suggest it's meaning. What a word means is decided by language, history and context, for example: the same word in different sentences can have connotations vastly different in tone. What this article is saying is that, whilst words have associated meaning, as do visible symbols, this meaning is ever-changing with each audience to the sign. For example, the word cat brings up many different images. For a person with a cat allergy, their reaction may well be stress and disgust, but this will not be the case with every person who sees the word cat, as the word does not invoke the cat itself, but merely the meaning that has been attached to the word. The study of this meaning is seimology and this transforms meaning from an identity to a difference. Instead of invoking the idea of "a cat", instead, the cat is "not a dog, not a chair etc." This creates much less specific meanings for words, and the concept can mean many different permutations of a theme.

The founder of seimology, while presenting a cohesive argument and theory overlooked unintentional signs and assumed that the the role of the sender of the sign was an important one. Also, there is no real difference between what he labeled as the signifier and the signified. The theory evolved to address these issues by expanding the meaning of signs to include whatever means something -anything- to somebody. However, another problem was detected - that of change. If meaning is relational and can change depending on the viewer, then it is wrong to assume that the system used for understanding how meaning is created is static. It was argued that meaning could not be exactly reproduced.

Since meanings are so able to be manipulated, this has political and social consequences.With the choice of words comes a choice of interpretations. The article provides the example of the European 'invasion' / 'settlement' of Australia, and the associated 'occupation and disinheritance of the culture of the Aboriginal people' / 'burden of care of the Aboriginal savages'. These both are two viewpoint that are in some ways accurate, but the choice of words portrays a very different picture in each of them. In one the British are the invaders, taking land, culture and people away from where they belong. In the other, they are seen as kindly conquerors, taking care of the 'savages'. As seen in this example, words can be twisted to manipulate meaning to transfer blame.

In the here and now, meanings are used to sell products, win voters etc. and it is imperative that all meanings are recognised.

Audience research has changed greatly with the obvious changes in audience. With conventional forms of media, such as television, radio and newspapers, audiences were passive. The experience of reading or viewing occurred, and extended no further. With the availability of interactive forms of media like the Internet, a phenomena of produceage has become more widespread. In Couldry (2005), an example is provided of an advertisement which offered shares in a film production in return for becoming an extra in the film. This example shows that there has been a power shift from the producers to the audience and it is this power shift which will be discussed.

This power shift has been triggered mainly by the diffusion of audience. This diffused audience no longer relates most closely to its locality, but rather to a global community. The diffused audience has it's permanent umbilical cord to technology, where technology has permeated every aspect of modern life, from socialisation to work to entertainment. This audience is different to previous audiences, which were generally either simple or mass. Simple audiences could be found through theatre or literature prior to the "media age", while mass audiences would be found through radio, film, television and newspapers throughout the late nineteen and the twentieth centuries. From this point onwards, audiences have muted into the diffused audience. In the life experiences of the diffused audience, media is no longer a "mass" experience, such as a cinema viewing or even television and radio broadcasts, as the media available is able to be fully customised. The emphasis is now less on the experience of community through common media, and more focused on the experience of individuality through customisation.

However, while diffused audiences celebrate customisation, they are inundated with media from every facet of life. Some examples include televised signs, mobile phones and newspapers. This means that the media is almost impossible to escape without becoming a hermit. Where the media is so diffused, it is logical to draw the conclusion that the audience is also diffused. The implications this has for audience research involve studying not just the direct interactions between people and media, and not only merely observing the direct media consumption of subjects, but instead studying the culture as a whole, in the context of media.

Power shifts occur whenever balances change, and in the media culture that is commonplace in many countries, suddenly, no longer are producers divided from audiences by a specific set of criteria. Instead, audiences now create via Youtube and blogs, a role that previously had been very specific to producers. This homogenisation is still taking place, disorientating many institutions set up for profit from production, who are experiencing a backlash against their perceived power.

Calling today's age an "information age" or "knowledge age" is somewhat of a fallacy, as this is not the only age in which there has been transfer of information. From homing pigeons to books and the tombs of the rich, there has always been a transfer of information from one person to another. Knowledge and information is power and productivity. To emphasise the knowledge we now posses as somehow being better or more complete than the knowledge we possessed in earlier ages would be arrogant and so Castells attempts to relabel this era as a network society, with the following criteria: Network societies are primarily characterised by their scalability, flexibility and survivability. As an example, the Internet. From its very beginnings to where it is now spanning the world,  connecting every place in some way instantaneously,it fulfils each of these criteria. It can change as needs, can be as large or small as necessary and  the Internet as a virtual structure will not fail if one node does. The Internet's only vulnerability is in the mechanism by which it is connected, rather than the network itself.

This network society has created great change in the practices and concepts that were used to govern life during the industrial age, for example. The concept of "clock time" and the functioning of a highly routinised and structured life became commonplace at the beginning of the industrial age.The network society has altered the relationship between time and space, so that time becomes less important as a consideration in life. There then becomes two spaces, coexisting intertwined: the space of places and the space of flows. These can blur together at times, leading to a "doubling of place" where consciousness can exist in both the place and flow of a space. The space of flows is accessed through technology, and while communities and people can value the space of places, emphasising locality and experience over the spatial form of the network, whose logic can be transitory.

Castell's hypothesis is that: "the culture of the network society is a culture of protocols of communication between all cultures of the world, developed on the basis of common belief in the power of networking and ... giving to others and receiving from others." He supports this with the example of hackers and their ethical code, which consists of two components: a want to innovate for purposes other than for capital gain and with this, a want to share this instant gratification. Instead of "trade secrets", in the network society knowledge is pooled, allowing further innovation and as innovation is the source of power and wealth, this then becomes the culture of the society, with an acceptance of the knowledge others have, and a greater appreciation of diversity.

Media involvement does not necessarily require a set 'audience'-'performer' relationship, as evidenced by phone and Internet communication. However, this can be easily forgotten in our studies of media which focus on the more static relationships within television, news and radio consumption.

The excerpt from Moores (2004) discusses both sets of technologies and how we relate to them. The sense of 'doubling of place' in it's most literal form can be seen in strict 'audience'-'performer' roles. This doubling occurs when an audience views information presented in a way that implies immediacy. For example, contestants on a game show appear to play live through camera work and careful stage-managing, but the show is made long before it is broadcast and this creates a sense for the audience of being in more than one place at the same time. It can also lead a viewer to feel emotionally connected to someone they have never met and so in this way, the audience is not only time shifted, but also displaced from their usual settings and made to feel present in the company of people they may never have met. This emotional connection is what leads society to feel collectively about certain issues, which may even interrupt their daily routine, such as in the case of a famous public figure's death.

Of course, the situation can become more complicated when the two realities - that of the audience and that of the performer collide, as can happen with the internet and telephone more so than with more static technologies. The excerpt mentions an anecdote about a young woman holding a 'private' conversation while in a public space. Her audience in this public domain assisted her in this, turning away so as to appear disinterested, and yet one audience member refused to comply with this unspoken social construct, and so while in her 'private' conversation, she was the audience, she became more aware that she was a performer. 

Media not only contributes to societal rules and routines, but also to a sense of time and place. However, if subjective and objective place collide, it can cause a jarring effect. Ultimately, we must always consider that the times and places that are subjectively experienced through media usage are merely human constructs, and yet this subjective experience can be more powerful than an objective observation.

Media broadcasts are a daily occurrence and as such, they ground us. When a television channel can be switched on to regular programming, clocks become rather obsolete. Certain programming combinations are on each day at the same times, to cater to the audiences who are more likely to watch them. These generalisations are deeply ingrained in our society. For example; the six o'clock news is designed for nine-to-five workers, afternoon programming is more often than not, targeted at the stay at home mother or wife and children's programming dominates the after school spot.

This grounding mainly affects perception of time, as well as the sense of human interconnectedness. Media becomes a part of daily lives through domestication, and as a part of integration builds human behaviour into routine. Since television programming, newspapers and magazines have different audiences, their news cycle is also affected. Magazines may have anywhere from a weekly to a quarterly news cycle, newspapers generally have a twenty-four hour cycle and television can reach out with all the immediacy of a situation, and this is becuase of the demands of the viewers. John Harlty makes mention of frequencies, which are involved in subjective experience of time. These frequencies are labelled within the cycle of creation, circulation and consumption. In most of his writing however, it is the frequency of circulation which is discussed most.

Wavelength in Media works in the same way as in the physical world. The formula, frequency multiplied by wavelength equals a constant still holds true in that whenever the frequency goes up, the wavelength goes down. Media can be ranged along a scale from low to high frequency with todays paper being high frequency, reaching less people (wavelength) with more immediacy than for example, cave paintings - which have an extremely low frequency, and yet they are known about all over the world.

As culture has accepted technology more and more closely into daily routines, the frequencies of new media have become faster and faster. From cave-paintings, to bas-relief and carvings, hand scribed books and letters, the printing press, radio, television and the internet, news can now be merely seconds in the creation. High frequency includes any publication with a frequency less than a week, anywhere between this and a year is described as midrange. Anything longer is low frequency and as society has slid up the scale towards high frequency, with "shocking" releases of news before the event, and a constant stream of information, so lives and routines have changed to match this due to a change in subjective experiencing of time.

A concept goes through many stages in its lifetime. It begins as something magical to be revered, it then becomes "the next big thing" and eventually works its way inextricably into our culture and social interactions. Of course, not all concepts live forever, or stay in use, but all stay in our cultural consciousness. Media studies in different eras has focused on different stages in the life of a concept. Technological determinism states that it is not only the role of the consumer to marvel at technologies but also to demand bigger (or smaller), better, faster, and simply more in the way of invention. This view assumes that humans use tools, machines and concepts without fundamental change to themselves or their social order.

Domestication sprung from the ashes of determinism, as constructivism took hold within the study of media. Domestication is the process of taking technologies and introducing them into the places in society where they change the fundamental structure of society while being completely taken for granted. As domestication takes place, and tames technology, people become used to the idea of having the technology and so find more uses to rely on it for. As an example, when computers were first released, there was no real function for them, and yet we welcomed them in their myriad forms into our homes, not really for functional purposes but so as not to be "left behind".

And this is what is happening in so many forms around our homes today, with the television and the mobile phone. Domestication of the media is not only about having the latest technology but also the latest version of it, and this is what makes it different from the usual definition of the term. In the past, we have domesticated cows, horses, wolves, cats and pigs. In this process we have selected the most desirable features (different types of dogs, the disappearance of tusks from pigs, and horns from sheep as a prime example) and in doing so, have changed the very nature and temperament of the animal. This is what we attempt to do with media. We bring it into our homes in much the same process, but while once domesticated, animals remain much the same, only perhaps slightly improving wool quality (for example), media is constantly changing in form and in the types of information that it brings into the home.

This has been happening since the beginning of invention, from the wheel to the sundial and to more modern technologies such as the mobile and television.

Media has always been a tool for communication. In older forms of media (such as television, newspapers and books) the direct communication is one way. These forms have the potential to spark debate and further communication within small groups or communities of people, which increases their connectedness with each other and the wider world. Later forms such as the Internet have the potential to create a global network, stretching across the planet. But, it must be asked, is this a case of quantity over quality? As a group, we love to communicate, interact and connect. We like feeling that we are a part of something bigger - a part of the town, a patriotic member of our country, a citizen of the world, and this is why we integrate media rituals into our lives. As Couldry (2003) states; "Formalised action... implies that 'ritual' involves a recognisable pattern, form or shape which gives meaning to that action. To see 'ritual'... as action involving broad, even transcendent values - is compatible (with formalised action)"

These transcendent values are this feeling of interconnectedness, which we immerse ourselves in on a daily basis, whether it be music, books, television, the Internet, or any other form. This immersion allows social order to function. The mere writing down of rules (a classic example is the ten commandments) imposes a social normality into our way of thinking. Media influences us in many ways, even in non-conscious ones. By becoming aware of something, we have an opportunity to form an opinion on it, whether that be politics, the very nature of social cohesiveness, or whether or not to have MacDonald's for lunch. Without information we cannot make decisions, and the media is how we obtain this information. Of course, media, while playing a large part in the continuation of societal order, must not be mistaken for a representation of the social whole. Our thirst for information allows social order to maintain itself.

The media process has always been viewed in many different lights - some positive and some negative.  On the one hand media has brought us closer together and given us more of a sense of interconnectedness, while at the same time it has forced us apart, into more superficial relationships with individuals. As an information medium, as a regulator of societal order, or simply as a part of our life, a rejection of media is a rejection of the interconnectedness of communities as a whole, and thus, regardless of differing opinions on the subject, media is here to stay.